Transmissible infections in sperm donation: viruses, bacteria and genetic risks

Author photo
Zappelphilipp Marx•
Laboratory technician examining a semen sample in a microbiology laboratory

Each year many people in the UK use donor sperm. Laboratory screening reduces the risk of infection and heritable conditions to a very low level, but it can never be eliminated entirely. Here you can read which pathogens and genetic variants are relevant, how reputable sperm banks screen donors, and what to consider for private donations. Further information: UKHSA, ESHRE guidelines, CDC on STIs, EU Tissue and Cells Directive.

Why multi-stage screening is essential

Many pathogens have a window period: shortly after infection an antibody test may still be negative while PCR/NAT can already detect the agent. Therefore reputable programmes combine medical history, serological tests, PCR/NAT and a delayed release after repeat testing (commonly 90–180 days). This approach noticeably reduces the residual risk. This logic follows the framework recommendations of ESHRE and public health authorities such as UKHSA.

Viruses that can be detected in ejaculate

  • HIV – antigen/antibody combination test plus PCR/NAT; release only after a second blood sample.
  • Hepatitis B and C – HBsAg, anti-HBc, anti-HCV and HCV-NAT; chronic infection must be reliably excluded.
  • CMV – IgG/IgM and PCR if indicated; relevant during pregnancy.
  • HTLV I/II – rare, but included in many programmes.
  • HSV-1/2 – clinical history, PCR if suspected.
  • HPV – PCR for high-risk types; positive samples are discarded.
  • Zika, dengue, West Nile – travel history, RT-PCR if needed and deferral after stays in endemic areas.
  • SARS-CoV-2 – currently mainly medical history and symptom checks; programme requirements vary.

Bacteria and parasites in the context of sperm donation

  • Chlamydia trachomatis – often asymptomatic; NAAT from urine or swab.
  • Neisseria gonorrhoeae – NAAT or culture with resistance testing.
  • Treponema pallidum (syphilis) – TPPA/TPHA and activity markers (e.g. VDRL/RPR).
  • Trichomonas vaginalis – NAAT; can reduce sperm function.
  • Ureaplasma/Mycoplasma – treated when detected.
  • Uropathogenic organisms (e.g. E. coli, enterococci) – culture if suspected; problematic strains are excluded.

Genetic risks: current standard testing

  • Cystic fibrosis (CFTR)
  • Spinal muscular atrophy (SMN1)
  • Haemoglobinopathies (sickle cell, thalassaemias)
  • Fragile X (FMR1) depending on history
  • Y-chromosome microdeletions in marked oligo/azoospermia
  • Population-specific panels (e.g. Gaucher, Tay–Sachs)

Extended testing is guided by family history and ancestry. ESHRE recommends defining indication areas transparently.

Risk matrix: pathogen, test, window period, release

ErregerPrimärtestFensterperiodeTypische FreigabeBemerkung
HIVAg/Ab-Kombi + PCR/NATTage bis wenige WochenNach Retest (90–180 Tage)NAT verkürzt Unsicherheit
HBV/HCVHBsAg, Anti-HBc, Anti-HCV, HCV-NATWochenNach RetestHBV-Impfstatus prüfen
SyphilisTPPA/TPHA + Aktivitätsmarker2–6 WochenNur bei kompletter Serologie negativTherapie → Deferral bis Ausheilung
Chlamydien/GonorrhöNAAT (Urin/Abstrich)TageBei NegativbefundPositiv → Therapie, Kontrolltest
CMVIgG/IgM ± PCRWochenBankabhängigRelevanz in der Schwangerschaft
Zika/West-NilRT-PCR + ReiseanamneseWochenDeferral nach Reise/InfektEndemiegebiete beachten

Specific timeframes vary by laboratory and national requirements. Guidance is provided by ESHRE, UKHSA and the EU tissue directives.

How the screening process works

  1. Medical history and risk assessment – questionnaire, travel and sexual history.
  2. Laboratory tests – combination of antibody/antigen and PCR/NAT.
  3. Genetic panel – according to guidelines and history.
  4. Quarantine – freezing and delayed release after repeat testing.
  5. Final release – only when all results are clear.

Private sperm donation: how to stay safe

  • Current written test evidence from both parties (HIV, HBV/HCV, syphilis, chlamydia/gonorrhoea; depending on circumstances CMV, trichomonas).
  • No unprotected sex with third parties during the window period after tests.
  • Use only sterile single-use containers, clean surface, wash hands; do not mix samples.
  • Document date, time and test results; agree arrangements in writing.
  • If symptoms such as fever, rash or discharge occur, postpone donation and seek medical advice.

Medical background on STI prevention: CDC and UKHSA provide accessible overviews.

Sperm donation with RattleStork: organised, documented, safety-focused

RattleStork helps you plan a private sperm donation responsibly. You can exchange test evidence securely, set reminders for retests, use single-use material checklists and document individual consents. Our practical checklist guides preparation, clean collection and handover. This keeps the donation planned and transparent while maintaining safety standards.

RattleStork app home screen showing a checklist for a safe sperm donation
RattleStork supports testing, retesting, documentation and safe procedures.

Law and standards (UK/Europe)

In the UK, the collection, testing and provision of donor gametes are regulated by national law and overseen by bodies such as the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA). Clinical and laboratory standards are informed by guidance from the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), professional organisations like ESHRE and, where applicable, EU directives on tissues and cells. Many banks also limit the number of children per donor and maintain registers.

Conclusion

Reputable sperm banks combine medical history, serological tests, PCR/NAT, quarantine and retesting. This makes infections and genetic risks very rare. For private donations the same principles are essential: up-to-date tests, attention to window periods, hygiene, documentation and clear agreements. RattleStork offers structured support to enable a safe, responsible sperm donation.

Disclaimer: Content on RattleStork is provided for general informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical, legal, or other professional advice; no specific outcome is guaranteed. Use of this information is at your own risk. See our full Disclaimer.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

With combined tests and delayed release the risk is very low, but it cannot be ruled out completely.

HIV, hepatitis B and C, syphilis, chlamydia and gonorrhoea and, depending on the programme, CMV, HTLV, HPV and a basic genetic panel.

Quarantine bridges the window period between infection and detectability and reduces the residual risk.

After successful treatment and negative follow-up tests donation is often possible; the facility decides on a case-by-case basis.

After travel to risk areas there are waiting periods and possibly PCR tests before release is possible.

Vaccination reduces the risk from many high-risk types but does not replace laboratory testing and release procedures.

Without standardised testing, quarantine and documentation the risk is higher; strict self-controls are necessary.

Cystic fibrosis, spinal muscular atrophy, haemoglobinopathies and, depending on history, additional panels such as Fragile X.

Positive cultures are followed by resistance testing and problematic strains are consistently excluded.

Processing reduces cellular load but does not replace negative tests and is not by itself proof of safety.

At regular intervals and additionally before each release; exact intervals are set by the facility.

That increases the risk of an undetected new infection and jeopardises release, so it is not recommended.

Complete vaccination is advisable and is taken into account, but laboratory testing remains mandatory.

Stored in liquid nitrogen at minus 196°C, quality remains stable for many years; there is effectively no fixed expiry date.

Yes, both parties should provide current results and respect the window period, otherwise the risk increases substantially.

You can exchange test results, schedule retests, tick off single-use materials and record consents in writing so procedures and evidence are always clear.